Week 9’s Final

Part One †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Write an essay of at least 700 words. Comprehensive writing skills must be used. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The First Amendment to the Constitution bars Congress from infringing on the freedom of speech of the citizenry of the United States. It does not prohibit private restrictions on speech. With this in mind, many universities have over the years instituted speech codes or have banned hate-speech. If you were in charge of a university what rules would you make for student conduct online?Explain your reasoning and support your answer with examples and other evidence. If our legal reality truly reflected our political rhetoric about liberty, Americans and especially American college and university students would be enjoying a truly remarkable freedom to speak and express controversial ideas at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Virtually every public official declares a belief in â€Å"freedom of speech. † Politicians extol the virtues of freedom and boast of America’s unique status as a nation of unfettered expression.Judges pay homage to free speech in court opinions. Even some fringe parties’ communists and fascists who would create a totalitarian state if they were in power have praised the virtues of the freedom they need for their survival. Few individuals speak more emphatically on behalf of freedom of speech and expression, however, than university administrators, and few institutions more clearly advertise their loyalty to this freedom than universities themselves.During the college application process, there is a very high probability that you received pamphlets, brochures, booklets, and catalogs that loudly proclaimed the university’s commitment to â€Å"free inquiry,† â€Å"academic freedom,† â€Å"diversity,† â€Å"dialogue,† and â€Å"tolerance. â€Å"You may have believed these declarations, trusting th at both public and private colleges and universities welcome all views, no matter how far outside the mainstream, because they want honest difference and debate.Perhaps your own ideas were â€Å"unusual† or â€Å"creative. † You could be a liberal student in a conservative community, a religious student at a secular institution, or even an anarchist suffering under institutional regulations. Regardless of your background, you most likely saw college as the one place where you could go and hear almost anything—the one place where speech truly was free, where ideas were tried and tested under the keen and critical eyes of peers and scholars, where reason and values, not coercion, decided debate.Freedom and moral responsibility for the exercise of one’s freedom are ways of being human, not means adopted to achieve this or that particular point of view. Unfortunately, ironically, and sadly, America’s colleges and universities are all too often dedicate d more to censorship and indoctrination than to freedom and individual self-government. In order to protect â€Å"diversity† and to ensure â€Å"tolerance,† university officials proclaim, views deemed hostile or offensive to some students and some persuasions and, indeed, some administrators are properly subjected to censorship under campus codes.In the pages that follow, you will read of colleges that enact â€Å"speech codes† that punish students for voicing opinions that simply offend other students, that attempt to force religious organizations to accept leaders who are hostile to the message of the group, that restrict free speech to minuscule â€Å"zones† on enormous campuses, and that teach students sometimes from their very first day on campus that dissent, argument, parody, and even critical thinking can be risky business. Simply put, at most of America’s colleges and universities, speech is far from free.College officials, in betraying th e standards that they endorse publicly and that their institutions had, to the benefit of liberty, embraced historically, have failed to be trustees and keepers of something precious in American life. This  Guide  is an answer and, we hope, an antidote to the censorship and coercive indoctrination besetting our campuses. In these pages, you will obtain the tools you need to combat campus censors, and you will discover the true extent of your considerable free speech rights, rights that are useful only if you insist upon them.You will learn that others have faced and overcome the censorship you confront, and you will discover that you have allies in the fight to have your voice heard. The  Guide  is divided into four primary sections. This introduction provides a brief historical context for understanding the present climate of censorship. The second section provides a basic introduction to free speech doctrines. The third provides a series of real-world scenarios that demons trate how the doctrines discussed in this  Guide  have been applied on college campuses.Finally, a brief conclusion provides five practical steps for fighting back against attempts to enforce coercion, censorship, and indoctrination. Part Two †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Write an essay of at least 700 words. Comprehensive writing skills must be used. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Between 1949 and 1987, the Fairness Doctrine was an FCC rule designed to provide â€Å"reasonable, although not necessarily equal† opportunities in presenting opposing viewpoints in radio broadcasting in order to avoid one-sided presentations.The practice was repealed under President Reagan as part of a wider deregulation effort. Do you think the Fairness Doctrine should be revived, revised, or left dead? Why? The  Fairness Doctrine  was a policy of the United States  Federal Communications Commission  (FCC), introduced in 1949, that required the holders of  broadcast licenses  to both present controversial issues of public importance and to do so in a manner that was, in the Commission's view, honest, equitable and balanced.The FCC decided to eliminate the Doctrine in 1987, and in August 2011 the FCC formally removed the language that implemented the Doctrine The Fairness Doctrine had two basic elements: It required broadcasters to devote some of their airtime to discussing controversial matters of  public interest, and to air contrasting views regarding those matters. Stations were given wide latitude as to how to provide contrasting views: It could be done through news segments, public affairs shows, or editorials.The doctrine did not require equal time for opposing views but required that contrasting viewpoints be presented. The main agenda for the doctrine was to ensure that viewers were exposed to a diversity of viewpoints. In 1969 the  United States Supreme Court  upheld the FCC's general  right  to enf orce the Fairness Doctrine where channels were limited. But the courts did not rule that the FCC was  obliged  to do so. 3]  The courts reasoned that the scarcity of the broadcast spectrum, which limited the opportunity for access to the airwaves, created a need for the Doctrine. However, the proliferation of cable television, multiple channels within cable, public-access channels, and the Internet have eroded this argument, since there are plenty of places for ordinary individuals to make public comments on controversial issues at low or no cost. The Fairness Doctrine should not be confused with the  Equal Time  rule.The Fairness Doctrine deals with discussion of controversial issues, while the Equal Time rule deals only with political candidates. The Fairness Doctrine has been both defended and opposed on First Amendment grounds. Backers of the doctrine claim that listeners have the right to hear all sides of controversial issues. They believe that broad-casters, if left alone, would resort to partisan coverage of such issues. They base this claim upon the early history of radio.Opponents of the doctrine claim the doctrine's â€Å"chilling effect† dissuaded broadcasters from examining anything but â€Å"safe† issues. Enforcement was so subjective, opponents argued, there was never a reliable way to determine before the fact what broadcasters could and could not do on the air without running afoul of the FCC. Moreover, they complain, print media enjoy full First Amendment protection while electronic media were granted only second-class status. I'll be honest, I'd never even heard of the Fairness Doctrine until I read this question.After looking it up on a few different sites, I'd have to say I’m still not entirely sure whether or not I think it should be reinstated. I see both pro's and cons to requiring licensed broadcast stations to present controversial public issues (which tends to apply mainly to political situations) in a fair, equal and honest way. I think this would create a more balanced source of rational discourse and  information  for the public on such issues and in this way serves the public interest.That being said, I think this is getting uncomfortably close to infringing upon freedom of the press and speech. I understand that the Fairness doctrine has the best of intentions and has even served us well in the past, But often, even good legislation leads to increased powers and control for government. No matter how many checks and balances our government has, It only takes one government official's loose interpretation of a law in order to justify abusing his office and encroaching up the basic rights our constitution grants us.

Written Words Used as Propaganda

Written Word Used as Propaganda The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave is an account of Frederick Douglass’ life written in a very detached and objective tone. One might find this normal for a historical account of the events of someone’s life if not for the fact that the narrative was written by Frederick Douglass himself. Frederick Douglass used this tone purposefully in an attempt to use his narrative as propaganda to convince others to join in the abolitionist’s movement. According to Donna Woolfolk Cross in â€Å"Propaganda: How not to be Bamboozled,† propaganda is â€Å"simply a means of persuasion† (149). She further notes that we are subjected daily to propaganda in one form or another as advertisers, politicians, and even our friends attempt to persuade us to use their product, vote for them, or adopt their point of view. Propaganda is usually considered in a negative sense. However, when viewing propaganda as just persuasion, one can readily appreciate that it is neither good nor evil; the good/evil effect is the direct result of the purpose for which it is used. Politicians and leaders have used propaganda to further their goals; Hitler’s use of propaganda as a means of controlling the population of Germany is the most recognizable example of propaganda used for evil. Martin Luther King’s â€Å"I Have a Dream† speech, in which he urges non-violent resistance in the cause of racial equality, portrays persuasion used with good intentions. Although speeches are highly effective at delivering ideas, the written word can be even more influential. In the early days of America, literature was used extensively as a means of persuasion. As early as 1589 Richard Hakluyt published stories in a book he wrote for the sole purpose of persuading people to sail to America and settle land. These stories which were told to Hakluyt by captains and sailors appeared to be straightforward and narrative, however Hakluyt edited each piece so that he was able to successfully persuade the people who read his stories to sail to America and settle the land thus securing critical natural resources for England. Such was the goal with the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Douglass’ objective was to appeal to the middle-class people of that time and persuade them to join in the movement. Although the Narrative was ostensibly written to prove that Douglass had actually been a slave, Douglass, working for the abolitionist group headed by William Lloyd Garrison, wrote for a specific audience: white Puritan Christians whom the abolitionists hoped to convert to their way of thinking. Thus, what began as a telling of his life experiences evolved into a tool of persuasion. As with all propaganda, Douglass’ Narrative contains certain elements that appeal to the emotions of the reader. Douglass’ writing style was descriptive as well as convincing. This emotional hold allows the writer to sway the opinion of the reader. His horrific details of the time, helped him grasp the attention of the women who he hoped in turn would convince their husbands to help, by donating money and eventually ending slavery. He used his words effectively in convincing the readers that the slave owners were inhuman and showed how they had no feelings for other human beings as evident when he wrote: ‘The louder she screamed the harder he whipped; and where the blood ran fastest, there he whipped longest† (Douglass25). Although a self-taught writer and orator, Douglass makes use of sophisticated elements of persuasive writing. Simultaneously, he chooses these events for how they will affect the Northern audience’s opinion of Southern slaveholders. Considering the fact that this was written during the height of the abolition movement the novel had to be effective in order to advance the success of the movement. The distant tone was effective because if Douglass had written with an impassioned tone, readers would have noticed it and simply wrote it off as a biased work, unable to see the issue from both sides. Through personal anecdotes, Douglass draws an accurate picture of slave life. Douglass also shows that slavery was not a constant source of pain and suffering: â€Å"I was not old enough to work in the fields, and there being little else than field work to do, I had a great deal of leisure time,† (Douglass 71). This is effective in proving his point because it allows him to show the whole of slavery and not be biased in his views. Douglass uses family relationships, starting with his own birth, to gain the compassion of his target audience. â€Å"Frequently, before the child has reached its twelfth month, its mother is taken from it, and hired out on some farm a considerable distance off, and the child is placed under the care of an old woman, too old for field labor† (749). Douglass mentions this particular anecdote to specifically capture the compassion of his targeted audience; white women. In Douglass’ autobiography however, the elements alone do not prove his intent to write for any reason other than to prove his background as a slave and defend his credibility against the critics of the abolitionists that charge that Douglass could never have been born a slave as he claimed (McKivigan 18). The most convincing argument for the contention that this was written as propaganda is the manner in which the persuasive elements are used. The body of the narrative is written in a simple and straightforward manner; the story is told quite matter-of-factly, even the horrific scenes of the cruel beatings and killings of slaves. This lack of histrionics is true even when the targets of the overseers’ whips are Douglass’ own family members. Yet, when Douglass speaks of Southern Christianity defending slavery, he works himself into a fury of emotion and uses the more obvious elements of propaganda. When he writes of the religious practices and hypocrisy of the same slaveholders, he again reverts to persuasive rhetoric. Some chapters are genuine throughout, while others contain much propaganda. One segment in particular, that having to do with the fate of his grandmother, is written in a style that is not consistent with the rest of the book. Rather, extremely histrionic, in which the believable, factual Douglass disappears, and is replaced by someone writing solely for effect â€Å"My dear old grandmother, whom you turned out like an old horse to die in the woods-is she still alive?.. Send me my grandmother! † (Preston 167). It appears that Frederick Douglass did begin his autobiography with the intention of writing his story in a realistic manner; the basic narrative bears that out. But in the course of writing his intent strayed, and he became aware of the power that could be unleashed by inflaming the emotions of readers. Undoubtedly encouraged in his use persuasive rhetoric on an oratory level, he eventually created a masterpiece of propaganda. Works Cited Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. New York: Signet, 1968. Douglass, Frederick. A Slaves Family Life†. Thinking and Writing About Literature. A Text and Anthology. Ed. Michael Meyer. New York: Bedford/St. Martins, 2001. 749. Cross, Donna Woolfolk. â€Å"Propaganda: How not to be Bamboozled. † Language Awareness. Ed. Paul Escholz, et al. New York: St Martins Press, 1994. 149. McKivigan, John R. , ed. Frederick Douglass. People Who Made History. Michigan: Greenhaven Press/Thomas Gale, 2004. Preston, Dickson J. Young Fredrick Douglass The Maryland Years. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980.

John Sloane’s Societal Criticism

Art often serves as a criticism of society of a specific time period. A prime example of this premise is John Sloan’s Sixth Avenue & 30th Street, New York City. This piece depicts the intersection of these two streets in early 20th century New York. In the foreground stands a drunken woman holding her pale of beer. To the right, two prostitutes stare at her and further to the right, a group of gentlemen stare at them. This kind of scene was common among the seedier streets of New York at the time though many did not understand how common it was.Sloan, as part of the Ashcan School made it his goal to realistically depict scenes of urban life. He did, however hold sympathy towards the poor who would have inhabited these kinds of streets. He sympathized with them and believed that their poor state was caused by a society that had abandoned them. This idea of his is clearly represented in Sixth Avenue & 30th Street. The group in the foreground of the painting, including the drunka rd and the prostitutes, would often be seen as negative by most members of society.Sloan, however, takes exception to this. He depicts them sympathetically, giving them a certain level of dignity that other painters wouldn’t have. He believed that these individuals had been abandoned and exploited by society, and forced to take up such low roles. As Sloan was a member of the Socialist party, this came as no surprise. The gentleman to the right of this group serve as Sloan’s societal criticism. These men represent the well-off of society.They stare at the unfortunate individuals in the foreground, feeling no sympathy but only amused at their state. This represented the overall attitude held by these kinds of people, which, Sloan felt, was a certain unwillingness to assist the worse-of members of society. On the surface, this piece depicts a standard realist scene of a New York. However, on a deeper level, the piece is a criticism of what he felt was an unfair, exploitat ive society, which has been a common theme in art throughout history and especially of the time.

Regulation of the Internet and Democratic Values and Ideals Essay

Regulation of the Internet and Democratic Values and Ideals - Essay Example In the age of internet, it has already become easy for people to keep in touch with each other because online communication has become a potential information resource (McQuail and Siune, 1998, p.76). Information has become a central foundation in the technological revolution (MacKay and O’Sullivan, 1999, p.122). With this, communication has become so easy that even an individual who is in the other part of the world could still converse to the other side of it with relatives or friends via social networking sites such as Skype, Facebook, Twitter, Friendster and many more. It has become so easy to connect with other people nowadays especially in making friends and increasing the number of contacts. In fact, the recent development in communication via internet and fast speed broadband connectivity paves the way for connecting people. Internet therefore has become a social phenomenon affecting culture (Atton, 2004, p.2; Slevin, 2000, p.1). However, while connecting people remain s a significant advantage of the internet, the issue regarding safety remains an alarming priority as one of the potential arguments for the regulation of online activities. Various crimes are already committed within the internet including but not limited to physical or violent harm. Transactions could be faster if they have to be generated online. In this regard, there are bank, credit card and other related transactions already made via online deals or the internet. The purpose is for convenience and safety. However, safety could be such an understatement considering the fact that hackers are flooding over the internet plus there is a remarkable increase in the number of viral programs, malwares and strategies to secure passwords and other relevant confidential information. This is another remarkable reason and a significant argument for the regulation of the internet that at some point may also potentially concern with protecting the identity of an individual and disclosure of h ighly sensitive and valuable information. However, this only proves that censorship is essential in capitalist democracies (Petley, 2009, p.1). In the advent of terroristic attacks and their dangerous output on the public, the UK and US implemented anti-terroristic campaigns and even regulation over the use of the internet and control any activities in the virtual world. All the intentions in these related activities are in line with providing the safety which the public deserves to experience. However, behind this concern, there are other forms of issues that need also to be considered. This generally includes the consideration of democratic values and ideal

Improvement for Students Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Improvement for Students - Assignment Example Current practices in universities for seminars are that they invite guest speakers and they deliver briefly about the topic. Universities can improve the pattern of conducting seminars as seminars are fruitful in providing knowledge of the actual corporate world which is totally different from the student life (Education system 'needs urgent improvement'_(News) Article from Cape Times (South Africa) HighBeam Research). Normally, guest speakers in the seminars are at the leading post in the leading companies. An interactive session of seminar can improve the standard of seminars which can also help students when they enter professional lives. Interactivity in seminars can be created by not only delivering what speaker knows but also by giving them real life examples and situations to think how to act on those. Graphic novels are kind of comic books which have text based on the likings of teenagers and youngsters (Graphic Novels). Such novels can also be considered as literature as they have stories similar to the novels but are presented in a different writing style. These novels are considered as literature as it consist text related to literature as it has the written composition and has its own importance.

Some Philosophy Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Some Philosophy Questions - Essay Example However, Meno’s next proposal is that, virtue has the capability of exercising power over people. Socrates opposes this proposal on two grounds: first, it not honorable for children or slaves themselves to exercise power over people, and secondly, presiding over people is only virtuous if at all it is done justly. This opinion influences Meno to immediately consider virtue as being justice. But he then gives in to Socrates that integrity is a kind of virtue but not virtue itself. Since Meno is more competence, he attempts to classify virtue again, this time suggesting that it concerned with longing for good things and obtaining the power to protect them but provided that one does so justly (Plato 33-37). However, his definition again stumbles upon the predicament of using â€Å"justice† in defining virtue. So because of him being very talkative, he even starts to contrast Socrates to an animal with the name torpedo fish, claiming that it numbs anything it touches. This disturbs Socrates responding that learning is not just finding out something new, but rather recollecting something that the essence had the information about before birth, and has forgotten since then. We see him trying to review the clear picture of what he meant, by calling one of Meno’s slave boys, drawing a square containing sides of two feet, and then ask the boy to make calculation of how lengthy would be the face of a square, if it happened to contain twice an area belonging to the one he had just drawn. After the boy gets a wrong answer, Socrates helps him to recognize the correct answer without essentially explaining anything that would force the boy into solving the problem on his own. If the boy reaches into a conclusion on his own with no direct teaching, then he must have been summoning up something he already knew. Socrates proposes two hypotheses on the subject of virtue, in order to totally convince Meno. The first verbalizes that, if integrity is a category of knowledge, then teaching is a key factor and second, if it exists anything good that isn’t knowledge, the possibility is that virtue is not a class of knowledge (Plato 59-63). He later concludes that virtue is wisdom either in general or parts and therefore it cannot be something that people are born with. He also says that virtue is not necessarily a product of knowledge but of factual belief. And that it is a topic of being capable of giving a report of what people knows, just like it is reviewed by the slave boy with the mathematical proof. Question two Descartes totally agrees that mind is completely different from body by establishing two motive factors, the religious and the scientific motive that makes his argument called real distinction. The religious motivation provides a rational starting point for a trust in the soul’s immortality. The scientific motivation emphasis that the nature of mind is absolutely distinctive as of that belonging to the body, hence paving way for Descartes’ description called the new mechanistic physics. The argument therefore shows that there could be possibility for one existing without the other. In religious motivation, Descartes’ purpose of reviewing that human intelligence or soul is really different from body is to refute the irreligious people. This is because they only believe in mathematics and that they would not

Network Security Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Network Security - Research Paper Example These issues can be dangerous for personal information safety and privacy. Thus, network management procedures are used for the effective management of the network security aspects (Kaminsky, 2012; Cisco, 2000; Huang, MacCallum, & Du, 2010). In addition, network security encompasses a set of rules and actions that an organization or business adopt to secure its computer systems, and it is a major concern for every business that uses a computer network to carry out its business tasks. Hence, compromised network security risk clearly demonstrates that a business competitor or hacker can gain access to sensitive or critical data, probably resulting in total destruction of business or personal information or system or data loss. In this scenario, effective network security can be attained when a user has to face a number of security layers before being capable to get access to the desired business or any information network. Additionally, various researches show that the implementation o f more layers results in more secure network and working environment (Kaminsky, 2012; Cisco, 2000; Huang, MacCallum, & Du, 2010). This paper presents a detailed analysis of network security. This paper will outline some of the major issues regarding internal and external security breaches of a corporate. This paper will also outline the actions and suggestions that should be taken into consideration in order to address these security issues. 2 Main Risks With the passage of time, the trend of adopting new technologies is growing rapidly. Additionally, the computer networks play a significant role in our lives as they are used everywhere. In fact, we regularly use the Internet to carry out our daily tasks. On the other hand, these networks also create various security risks. In addition, network security issues are everywhere whether it is a computer being utilized in a big business/organization or it is a personal computer. In order to ensure network security every computer requires to be protected from the computer network dangers and security fears. Every time we use the new computer system we face some sort of security risks and danger like exposing personal information, credit card theft, identity theft, hacking, data leakage, virus attacks, DoS attacks, and data corruption. In addition, there are also certain other security threats such as various virus attacks and a number of other security problems (Zhang, Xiao, Chen, Zhang, & Deng, 2012; Joshi, 2008; Network Security Threats, 2012). Moreover, in order to determine network security issues a research study was conducted by the event management and security information supplier netForensics, which revealed that more than 80 percent of IT managers anticipate network-borne dangers, which have augmented all through the year 2010 and 2011, and more than 85 percent of IT managers are seeing their corporate network security environment turning out to be more and much harder and complex (Cisco, 2000; Schwartz, 2 010). 3 Internal and External Security Breaches This section outlines some of the major

Mechanical engineering Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mechanical engineering - Research Paper Example Here are a few observations. The easiest sources where from bls.gov and usnews.com. They have simple and well documented report on what is required for one to orient to mechanical engineering. They gave accurate information about what’s required once a person takes up the course, what to expect in terms of the difficulties of the job as well as the salary. Salary ranges where given from almost all the sources. From (Bls.gov, 2014), mechanical engineers’ median annual salary was $ 80,580.this was back in May 2012. It was during this year that, the engineers in the low 10% region earned less than $52,030 annually and those in the top 10% earned nothing less than $121,530. The site gives the salary ranges of the top five industries. The highest employers were Computer and electronic product manufacturers who paid them $84,860 annually, followed by Architectural engineering, Transport and equipment manufacturers, Machinery manufactures and the lowest employers were in the Fabrication industry that paid them $69,890 annually. Other sources had almost similar figures but I prefer this one (Bls.gov, 2014) A bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering or mechanical technology is required. This is a fixed requirement on most universities. However some colleges offer 5year programs that cover both Bachelors degree as well as Masters. (Money.usnews.com, 2014). The full program takes 4-5 years to complete inclusive of the internships. Apart from the educational requirements, one is required to have other qualities. One has to have the creativity in them. One should have great listening skills. Math’s also a key quality as most of the time, you will come across several work stations.one should have mechanical skills in them. Lastly is they should be good problem solvers as they will encounter challenges that will require them to work on it in no time at all. (Bls.gov, 2014) . There is other kind of information that is given in some

Marketing Management - marketing plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marketing Management - marketing plan - Essay Example Prior to the study conclusion and business recommendation, the forecasted sales on behalf of Apple and Vodafone will be discussed. Apple’s iPhone is considered as one of the fastest-selling telecommunications product as part of the history. (news.com.au, 2007) In line with the different countries with the legal right to sell iPhone, Apple had chosen a single phone network to exclusively provide the service for the iPhone handset. During the first quarter of 2008, Apple made a confirmation that iPhone will be released in Australian market within the year. (Lake, 2008) Recently, Vodafone has announced that the company will be selling Apple’s iPhone to customers all over Australia during the last quarter of the year with the condition that customers will be required to use the Vodafone network. (Vodafone, 2008a & 2008b) However, Vodafone did not specify whether the said agreement that was signed between the company and Apple was exclusive or not. (Moses, 2008) In case the contract between Vodafone and Apple was not exclusive, there is a possibility for Telstra and Optus to have the priviledge of selling the iPhone to Australian market. As part of Apple’s main business objective, signing a contract with a single phone network in each of its target country will enable Apple to sell a large quantity of iPhone within the shortest period of time. For this study, the researcher will develop a marketing plan for Apple iPhone in Australia. In the process of conducting the study, the researcher will first describe the product followed by studing the market segmentation for iPhone. Based on the demographic profile of its target consumers, the researcher will define the potential market size for the said product. Using the PESTLE framework, the researcher will examing and analyze the external factors that may affect the

Life Span Development and Personality Essay Example for Free

Life Span Development and Personality Essay Today the topic of discussion will focus on the famous Sigmund Freud and his viewpoints on developmental psychology. This discussion seeks to answer four questions about Sigmund Freud’s life. The first topic is Sigmund Fraud’s influences and environment in psychological development. Second the discussion seeks to reveal Sigmund Freud’s view of family issues or support systems that influenced Freud’s developmental growth and adjustment. Third the discussion seeks to explain two different theories of personality. The discussion seeks to explain how each theory differs in terms of the explanation of Freud’s unique pattern and traits. The fourth and final topic of discussion seeks to explain the theatrical approach that explains both Freud’s behaviors and achievements. The reason this paper chose to write about famous Sigmund Freud explained. Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 and died in 1940. Freud studied the personality of humans. Freud describes three major systems of the human personality. Sigmund Freud’s structural model is as follows: 1. the id holds the human sexual and aggression energy driven by impulses and characterized by a human’s primary thinking (Kowalski Westen, 2011). 2. The superego explains a human’s conscience and a major source of ideas established through a person’s identity (Kowalski Westen, 2011). 3. The ego describes a person’s desires, morality, and desires (Kowalski Westen, 2011). Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual development suggest in the first five years the human personality begins. Zero to one is the oral stage of development. Children f rom zero to one gain the most gratification from sucking than from biting and chewing food and sometimes other objects. In stage one through three describes the anal stage. During the anal stage children seem to gain gratification from defecation through the anus. The conflict begins when children begin potty training. Some children hold back feces causing him or her to become constipated. Generalized by some children’s behavior and the way he or she does, for example, cleanliness, stinginess, or stubbornness. On the other hand some children may have accidents in his or her pants. This may relate to expulsive personality, for example, disorderly conduct, messiness, and throwing fits. The final stage of three to five referred to as the phallic stage (Maitland, 2011). In this stage the genital area becomes a sense of pleasure. This causes the superego to begin and guards against incest and aggression. Children also can feel a sense of inferiority in this stage. Freud suggests mental disorders may come from an individual’s history and not just an individual’s physical impairments. Freud developed a new way to analyze human behavior. Freud’s view explained mental energy comes from the body. Freud believed all humans can only obtain a limited amount of mental energy. Freud believed human behavior was from causation. Freud also believed tension-reduction consist of a human goal for behavior. Freud claims humans consist of two human impulses for example, sexual impulses, and libido. Sexual impulses consist of life affirming impulses. Libido consists of energy source impulses. Needs consist of basic life impulse, aggression consists of death encouraging impulses, and aggressive impulses consist of an energy source for aggressive impulses. When a human impulse grows the more likelihood the human will react on impulses to reduce the need he or she feels to do so. Life affirming libido consists of activities, people objects, or goals. Cathexis consists of the process of investing libidinal energy. When an individual uses excessive cathexis this may lead to neurosis, however, neurosis is treatable. Treatment for neurosis often referred to catharsis or in other words a talking therapy. Sigmund Freud believed mental processes were unconscious. Sigmund Freud believed the conscious contains an individual’s specific information that a person’s paying attention at any given time. Freud believed the preconscious contains information or clues most individuals do not pay attention to unless recalled by a specific situation. Sigmund Freud believed the unconscious contains an individual’s desires, feelings, and thoughts held without an individual’s knowledge. However, these desires, feelings, and thoughts affect an individual’s everyday life. Freud believed the information in an individual’s unconscious emerges by ac cident, such as joke telling, dreams, symptoms of illness, and the associations between individual’s ideas. Sometimes the anger in a person’s unconscious comes out by mistake Understanding Psychology (nd). Another theory of Sigmund Freud contains the three components of personality, for example, id, superego and ego. Freud claimed the three components appear always in conflict with each other, according Freud the conflicts usually appear sexual or aggressive and most violate the societal rules. From a personal standpoint Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalyst theory the way an individual’s personality develops during ages zero to five. However, from a personal standpoint an individual’s personality develops throughout his or her life. For example children’s development goes through the age of 18. Some children take longer to develop than others. Even in adulthood an individual’s experiences and environment may change a person’s personality. Many individual live and are raised in bad environment’s that would affect his or her personality. On the other hand many people are also raised in a good environment that also affects his or her personality i n a positive and occasionally negative manner. In both scenarios an individual’s actions and behavior may affect his or her personalities throughout life. This paper was chosen on Sigmund Freud because he was a very intriguing and an expert in psychological research. In conclusion, this paper revealed the famous research in psychological research by Sigmund Freud. The paper revealed the three components of personality, according to Sigmund Freud. The three components of personality according to Sigmund Freud are id, superego, and ego. Sigmund Freud suggests that most human behavior develops during the age of zero to five. This paper revealed the Sigmund Freud’s view human personality and the unconscious mind of a human. Freud also suggests that many disorders may come from an individual’s history and not just an individual’s physical impairments. Freud suggests most disorders deal with sexual disorders or an individual’s aggressive behavior. Freud also suggests humans act on his or her impulses. Some people may act on bad impulses that may lead to terrible outcomes and consequences for his or her actions. Sigmund Freud was greatly scrutinized for his psychological research. Sigmund Freud was chosen for this paper because his research was very intriguing research in human personality and human behavior. Reference: Kowalski, R., and Westen, D. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.).Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Retrieved from University of Phoenix eBook Col Maitland, L., L. (2011). Personality Theories and Approaches for AP Psychology Retrieved from http://www. education.com Understanding Psychology (nd). Chapter 14 Theories of Personality Retrieved from http://www.glencoe.com

A Review On Alcoholic Detection From EEG Signals

A Review On Alcoholic Detection From EEG Signals Abstract: This review covers advances of the past decade, in the development of EEG signal processing algorithms for alcoholic detection. In recent years, various computational approaches have been proposed to detect alcoholism from EEG recordings. In this paper, we review some of those approaches, and discuss their limitations and potential In part I, an introduction to the effect of alcohol on EEG is discussed briefly. We review some of the known effects of alcohol on EEG signal in part II. Some of the exiting state of the art signal processing techniques for alcoholic detection in EEG recordings are discussed in part III. A review of various signal processing methods used to classify alcoholics and controls is done. The potential and limitation of such computational approaches are discussed in part IV. A discussion on the potential use of EEG as a biomarker for alcoholism and as a mass screening tool is also discussed .At the end of the paper, we conclude by briefly addressing the future challenges and open problems in part V. PART I Introduction Alcoholism is a social bane that is affecting the human life in all aspects. Not only it causes damage to the human brain and other organs of the body in various ways, it also brings about a lot of difficulties and discomfort to an alcoholic person in his/her social life. A lot of research has gone into finding the ill effects and the extent to which it damages the human body. Some of the harmful effects include lack of coordination between body and mind, loss of vision, imbalance in walking, incoherent speech, memory slips, depression to name a few. These effects can be observed after only a few drinks and they may vanish once the person gives up drinking. However a person who is addicted to drinking large quantities of alcohol for a long time may be affected with these effects that persist for a longer time and severely damage one or more organs of the body. The way in which alcohol affects the brain and the probable reversal of the ill effects caused by heavy drinking on the brain still remain as hot topics in alcohol research [1]. Some of the factors that determine the extent to which alcohol affects the brain are: i) quantity and how frequently a person drinks ii) the age of the subject at which the habit of drinking started and how long it is being continued iii) subjects age, education, gender, genetic predisposition and family history of alcoholism iv) possibility of prenatal exposure and the overall health condition[47]. Heavy drinking not only affects the human brain but it also damages other vital organs of the body. It is also found that females are more affected than males in the way the alcohol consumption damages the various organs of the body. For example, a few years of heavy drinking in women cause cirrhosis [48] cardiomyopathy [49] and nerve damage [50] than in alcoholic men. However, the studies on sensitivity of females brain to alcohol-induced brain damage as compared with males, have not shown any conclusive results [1]. Alcohol intake combined with poor general health condition or with severe liver disease causes damage to the human brain in an indirect manner. For example, thiamine deficiency is common in people with alcoholism which is a result of poor overall nutrition [1].  A large percentage of alcoholics suffer from thiamine deficiency and some may even develop severe brain disorders such as [51] Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (WKS) [52]. The symptoms of WKS include mental confusi on, oculomotor disturbances and difficulty with muscle coordination, forgetfulness and frustration and have difficulty with walking and coordination [53] . One of the organs that severely gets affected by long term alcohol consumption in large quantities is the liver. In a person with a history of heavy long-term drinking, the liver s function is to breakdown alcohol into harmless by-products and flush them out of the body. However, the liver may get damaged due to excessive alcohol intake, leading to liver cirrhosis. This condition of the liver can harm the brain, leading to a potentially fatal brain disorder called hepatic encephalopathy [54].Some of the effects of Hepatic encephalopathy are disturbances in sleep patterns, mood swings, personality changes, anxiety, depression, attention deficits, difficulty in coordination like shaking of the hands ( asterixis). In the worst case, patients may slip into coma ( hepatic coma), which can lead to death. It is indeed difficult to diagnose these effects as related to hepatic encephalopathy. New imaging techniques assist researchers to study specific regions of brain in such patients, which helps them in knowing exactly how hepatic encephalopathy progresses. The studies have confirmed that at least two toxic substances, ammonia and manganese are responsible for the development of hepatic encephalopathy. The severely damaged liver cells allow these harmful toxic products to enter the brain, which in turn harms the brain cells. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy may lead to physical, learning, and behavioural problems in the developing fetal brain. The most serious of these problems is the fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Children with FAS may have distinct facial features [1]. FAS infants growth may be lesser than average. They may suffer from microcephaly. In infants with this syndrome, only a fewer neurons may be present or a fewer neurons may function properly. This will lead to problems in learning and behaviour for a long term. All alcoholics do not experience the ill effects of alcohol consumption in a similar manner to the same extent. The source of the disease may be different for different patients. This makes it difficult to pinpoint any one parameter as responsible for the brain disorders found in alcoholics. That is why, one of the active areas of research is to study why some patients are vulnerable to brain deficits while others are not [55]. Most alcoholics suffering from cognitive disorder improve in the structure and functioning of the brain within a year of abstinence [56-58].This may not be true in all cases. Therefore clinicians must devise different types of treatment methods to cater to different patients. They use brain-imaging techniques to determine the course and progress of treatment over a period of time. Researchers use imaging methods such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), positron emission tomography (PET), and electrophysiological brain mapping. These methods provide precise and accurate information on structural, functional and biochemical changes in patients brain over time. Sometimes, two or more brain imaging methods are used together to correlate the results and monitor when a chronic alcoholic patient stops drinking and again after long periods of sobriety ,the possibility of relapse of the drinking habit in the patient [59]. The process of memorization and retrieval depend on factors such as attention and motivation [60]. MRI of brain assist the physicians to study the effects of long time abstinence from alcohol on memory and attention, as well as changes that take place when drinking habit relapses. The aim of these studies is to differentiate between the alcohol-induced permanent effects on the brain and those which are reversible with abstinence. PET imaging assists researchers to visualize, in the living brain, the damages associated with heavy alcohol consumption [61]. This also enables scientists to analyse alcohols effects on neurotransmitter systems, brain cell metabolism and blood flow within the brain. These studies on alcoholics have shown the frontal lobe disorders, which are responsible for various functions associated with learning and memory and deficits in cerebellum which controls movement and coordination. PET can also be used for monitoring the effects of alcoholism treatment on the a ffected parts of the brain and may give new directions in developing medications to rectify the chemical deficits found in the brains of people with alcohol dependence. Numerous studies have shown the ill effects of alcohol on the human brain by observing and analysing the electroencephalogram (EEG) of the alcoholic subject and compared with that of a control subject. Electroencephalography (EEG) is a simple non invasive tool that records the brains electrical signals by placing electrodes on the scalp. These signals show real-time activity as it occurs in the brain. Many studies have shown that the effect of alcohol on the human brain can be perceived by processing the recording the EEG of an alcoholic subject. The single channel EEG recordings of a control and an alcoholic subject are as shown in fig 1.It can be observed that the time series EEG data of both control and alcoholic subjects are not clearly perceptible to the bare human eye. However, with the help of certain signal processing techniques either in the time domain or frequency domain or time-frequency domain or spatial domain techniques, the latent features can be extracted to identify the effects of alcohol on the human brain. As an illustration, the PSDs of the EEG of both control and alcoholic subject are as shown in fig2. From this it is very clear that the power contained in various frequency components are different for both control and alcoholic subjects. C:UsersMUDocumentsMATLABeeg_epilep_codestime_series_data.jpg C:UsersMUDocumentsMATLABeeg_epilep_codespsd_c_a.jpg Fig 1.Time series EEG data of control Fig2. PSD plot of EEG of control and alcoholic subjects and alcoholic subjects Many alcoholic men have low amplitude of their P3 components (fig 3). P3 amplitudes in alcoholic women reduce to a lesser extent than in men. The uniqueness of the reduction in P3 component among other symptoms is that even after the patient drops the habit of drinking alcohol, this reduction in P3 persists[63].Therefore this parameter can be thought of as a biomarker for alcohol dependence rather than an effect of alcohol consumption. There are many studies conducted on the reduced P3 amplitudes of young people who are not exposed to alcohol but their fathers being alcoholics [64, 65].Therefore, P3 can be used as biomarkers to help recognizing people who may be at greatest risk for developing problems with alcohol. graph Fig 3 . P3 amplitude in control and alcoholic subjects (Courtesy:[1]) Compared to other imaging methods discussed above, electrophysiological methods such as EEG processing for detection of alcoholics has a lot to offer in terms of mobility and cost involved. Hence it can be used as a mass screening tool for the underprivileged with a history of alcoholism. PART II Effect of Alcohol on EEG recordings Studies have shown that some of the major effects of alcohol on EEG are: i) enlargement of frontal negative occipital wave component ii) increase in ventricular and sulcal CSF volumes iii) Reduction in p300 component iv)Reduction in pre frontal cortical excitability v)Reduction in the amplitude of Error related negativity vi) Binge drinking effect on ÃŽ ´ and fast ÃŽ ²waves vii) Reduction in the power of EEG signal in frontal region and enhancement of ÃŽ ¸ waves . viii) high ÃŽ ² and ÃŽ ¸ power in the resting EEG, abnormalities in eye movements, in saccadic inhibition during antisaccade tasks. These effects, however, are not always easily detectable. There tends to be a large variability from patient to patient. As a result, none of these phenomena allow at present to reliably detect the effect of alcohol at an early stage. Many recent studies have concentrated on how to improve the sensitivity of EEG for detecting alcoholism. In the following we briefly review some of these studies. A. Enlargement of frontal negative occipittal wave component Way back in 1990, Jerald Varner et al., reported a study of alcoholic organic syndrome patients using the occipital wave components of the event related potential (ERP) as an electrophysiological parameter [3]. The study was conducted on normal, Korsakoff, and alcoholic dementia patients. The frontal negative occipital wave was observed to be increased in alcoholic organic brain syndrome patients and it was concluded that it was probably due to an attention deficit, indicating a probable frontal lobe dysfunction. B. Increase in ventricular and sulcal CSF volumes Adolf Pfefferbaum et al., [4] quantified brain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) volumes derived from computed tomography (CT) in alcoholics and controls. The results showed that the ventricular and sulcal CSF volumes in alcoholic patients were greater than was expected for their age. This also proved the previous results obtained from a similar study using CT and MRI showing greater vulnerability of the aging brain to alcohol. The absolute ventricular volumes were similar in MRI and CT, while MRI results showed larger sulcal volume estimates than the CT. It was concluded that MRI slice thickness and its resolution to partial volume effects led to this increase in sulcal volume estimate. C. Reduction in p300 component Shirley Y. Hill et al., studied the effect of alcohol on the p300 component [9] .According to this study , it was found that only patients(female) with comorbid depression had a reduced p300 amplitude ,while there was no difference in other alcoholic and control subjects(male and female) . From this study, it was also concluded that the P300 amplitude reduction seen in children prone to developing alcoholism seems to represent a delay in neuron development that normalizes as they grow into adulthood. In another similar study, Michio Hada et al., used bootstrap analysis method in which P3a current source density (CSD) maps showed distinct topographic mapping between alcoholics and control subjects in all the brain regions [10]. More sources and sinks were seen in the alcoholics than in the control subjects for P3a. The reduced P3a amplitude and sinks in alcoholics coupled with less specificity in their CSD maps, suggested disorganized less efficient functioning of the brain. This suggests a probable underlying CNS hyper excitability in alcoholics due to cortical disinhibition . D. Reduction in pre frontal cortical excitability Seppo Kahkonen et al. [13], reported the effects of alcohol on the prefrontal cortex in nine healthy subjects using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) activated electroencephalogram (EEG) signals. Changes in EEG activity lasting up to 270 ms post stimulus were observed as a response to activation by TMS. The changes were observed more prominently at anterior electrodes suggesting the reduction in excitability in the prefrontal cortex due to alcohol. E. Reduction in the amplitude of Error related negativity A study by Clay B Holroyd et al., indicated that alcohol consumption reduces the amplitude of the error-related negativity (ERN)[14] component of the event related potential(ERP), a sharp negative going signal that occurs in the EEG at the instant when an incorrect motor response starts ( ie.,error commission). F. Binge drinking effect on ÃŽ ´ and fast ÃŽ ² waves Kelley E Courtney et al. evaluated the spectral power in the ÃŽ ´ and fast ÃŽ ² waves of EEG recordings of young undergraduate university students who varied in their binge drinking history [18].The aim of the study was to characterize the effects of binge drinking on central nervous system(CNS) neuroelectric activity in male and female undergraduate subjects. The EEG recordings of these subjects showed enhanced spectral power in the ÃŽ ´ (0-4 Hz) and fast- ÃŽ ² (20-35 Hz) bands for the high-binge drinkers. Although the dependence of fast- ÃŽ ² power on binge drinking still remains unclear, the change in fast- ÃŽ ² power indicates that EEG spectral pattern of high-binge drinkers is similar to that of alcoholics. This study indicated that the relative enhancement in fast- ÃŽ ² power may be used as a biomarker for potential future alcoholism even in the absence of familial alcoholism. G.Effect on ÃŽ ²,ÃŽ ¸ ,ÃŽ ³ waves ,eye movement disorders and saccadic inhibition Wu Di et al., discussed the change in the power of EEG signal in various parts of the brain after consuming alcohol , resulting in harmful effects on different parts of the brain and the body[19]. It was observed that while in the frontal region the power of the EEG signal decreased with the increase in the quantity of alcohol intake, the power of the EEG signal in central, occipital region increased. This study also revealed that while in the frontal region, the alcohol intake caused a transformation in the fast wave with decrease in the power of EEG signal, the fast wave reduced with an increase in the power of EEG signal in the central and occipital region. It was also observed that while the effect of alcohol in the frontal region indicated nerve stimulation of alcohol in this part, making drinkers to become excited after alcohol intake, in the central and occipital region, the effect of alcohol consumption led to an inhibitory action on the neuron cells, resulting in the weakeni ng of the body coordination and eyesight. Further it was noted that increase in alcohol intake resulted in ÃŽ ¸ waves generation and gradual enhancement as the subjects were in state of drowsiness and the central nervous system(CNS) of the subjects was inhibited. At the same time, ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ² waves were seen to gradually enhance and the region of these waves expanded after consuming alcohol. The study also indicated that the correlation between parts of brain decreased gradually because the clustering of the EEG signal was separated gradually into small clusters with increased alcohol intake. From this observation, it was concluded that too much drinking may lead to the decrease of balance, stability between the parts of the brain. S. Campanella et al., [41], studied various physiological parameters such as continuous EEG, oculomotor measures, cognitive ERPs and event-related oscillations that are affected in chronic alcoholic patients compared to healthy controls. This study was aimed at identifying links between these physiological parameters, altered cognitive processes and specific clinical symptoms. The result of their study showed:(1) high beta and theta power in the resting EEG, suggesting hyperarousal of CNS (2) abnormalities in smooth pursuit eye movements, in saccadic inhibition during antisaccade tasks, and in prepulse inhibition, suggesting disturbed attention and abnormal prefrontal inhibitory cortical dysfunction; (3) decreased amplitude for cognitive ERPs situated along the continuum of information processing, suggesting that alcoholism is associated with neurophysiological deficits at the level of the sensory cortex and not only disturbances involving associative cortices and limbic structures; and (4) decreased theta, gamma and delta oscillations, suggesting cognitive disinhibition at a functional level. Ajayan Padmanabhapillai et al.,[71] investigated the early evoked gamma band response in male adolescents at high risk and at low risk groups for a visual stimulus. The results indicate that the deficient early evoked gamma band response may indicate the risk of development of alcoholism and could be a potential bio marker for future addiction to alcoholism. David A. Kareken et al., [72] used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to determine how family history affects the brains response to subjects preferred alcoholic drink odours (AO) as compared to appetitive control odours (ApCO). This study suggested that a family history of alcoholism and brain exposure to alcohol odour in heavy drinkers differentially affect the way in which brain responds to alcohol cues. H.Whole-genome association study on EEG waves Variation in resting EEG is associated with common, complex psychiatric diseases such as alcoholism, schizophrenia and anxiety disorders although it can not be used as a diagnostic tool for any of them. Such traits appear to be dependent on the underlying molecular processes than on clinical symptoms, and points to an alternative method for the identification of genetic variation that characterize complex psychiatric disorders. Colin A. Hodgkinsona et al.,[39], performed a whole-genome association study on alpha (ÃŽ ±), beta (ÃŽ ²), and theta (ÃŽ ¸) EEG power in a Native American cohort of 322 individuals to maintain the genetic and environmental homogeneity of this population. Three genes SGIP1, ST6GALNAC3 and UGDH were nominally associated to variability of ÃŽ ¸ or ÃŽ ± power. SGIP1 was estimated to account for 8.8 % of variance in ÃŽ ¸ power and this association was replicated in US Caucasians, where it accounted for 3.5% of the variance. Bayesian analysis of prior probability of association based upon earlier linkage to chromosome 1 and enrichment for vesicle-related transport proteins established the genuineness of the association of SGIP1 with ÃŽ ¸ power. It was also found that the association of SGIP1 with alcoholism provides validation of the use of EEG as an endo phenotype for alcoholism. I.Effect of alcohol on facilitation effect The aim of this study by P. Maurage et al., [32], was to study cross modal (auditory-visual) processing while the subjects were given an emotional stimuli and specifically the auditory-visual facilitation effect. Twenty patients suffering from alcoholism, and 20 healthy controls were asked to identify the emotion (anger or happiness) displayed by auditory, visual or auditory-visual stimuli. The stimuli were designed to elicit a facilitation effect (namely, faster reaction times (RTs) for crossmodal condition than for unimodal ones).It was observed that the alcoholics showed less significant facilitation effect compared to their healthy counterparts.This lack of facilitation effect may be used as a biomarker for an impaired auditory-visual processing in alcoholics. PART III I. Signal processing techniques for detection of alcoholism in EEG signal The Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a bio signal containing information about the state of the brain. The latent information present in the EEG signal may not be visible for the human expert and any subtle variations hence cannot be observed and monitored as and when it occurs. Especially in the time series EEG data, subtle variations can not be perceived by human eye. In such a situation the computational approach becomes very important to extract any such micro variations in the EEG recording, containing significant information about the status of any pathology present. Also, since EEG is an inexpensive method and due to its portability, it can be used as a powerful mass screening tool. EEG signals are the signatures of neural activities. They are captured by multiple-electrode either invasively or non-invasively, over the cortex under the skull, or certain locations over the scalp, and can be recorded in different formats. The signals are normally presented in the time domain, but by applying simple signal processing tools such as the Fourier transform to perform frequency analysis and some imaging tools to visualize EEG topographies , the brain activities can be visualized in frequency or spatial domains respectively. Various time domain, frequency domain, time-frequency methods, statistical signal processing technique such as Wavelet transform [5], Recurrent Neural network [6], nonlinear systems [7], logistic regression [8], spectral densities of DWT coefficients [16], etc., and chaotic signal processing techniques [2] are used to study the pathology of brain such as epilepsy. These techniques are also used to classify between alcoholic, non-alcoholic and epilept ic subjects. In recent years, several research groups have started investigating the potential of electroencephalograms (EEGs) for detecting alcoholism and study the short term and long term effects on the brain. There have been many algorithms developed so far for processing EEG signals. Some of the operations include time-domain analysis, frequency-domain analysis, spatial-domain analysis, and multiway processing. Also, several algorithms have been developed to visualize the brain activity from images reconstructed from only the EEGs. Separation of the desired sources from the multisensor EEGs has been another research area. This can later lead to the detection of brain abnormalities such as epilepsy and the sources related to various physical and mental activities. In this section, some of the signal processing techniques applied to EEG signal for the detection of alcoholism is reviewed. A. Extraction of spectral band power and parametric methods Ong, Kok Mang et al, have shown that VEP (visually evoked potential) could be influenced by long term alcohol abuse [20]. The power spectral density of the recorded VEP was estimated using Burg algorithm (parametric analysis) and the extracted Gamma band power was used as features to train the neural network to classify the alcoholics and non-alcoholics. The authors claim that classification result of 97.50% accuracy has been achieved, to discriminate alcoholics from non-alcoholics.Kok-Meng Ong et al., have proposed Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method for the optimization of the selection of a subset of channels for single trial Visual Evoked Potentials (VEP) signals [23]. The proposed method was successful in optimizing a subset of channels that guaruntees high classification accuracy of alcoholics and non-alcoholics Another similar study by Ramaswamy Palaniappan et al., show that the difference of VEP signals between alcoholics and non-alcoholics can be observed using two spectral power ratios in gamma band (37-50 Hz) extracted from seven channels. This result implies that gamma band spectral power could be used as a biomarker on the lasting effects of long-term use of alcohol on visual response though the studied alcoholics have been abstinent for a minimum period of 1 month. Here Genetic algorithm (GA) is used to optimize the selection of subset of the feature set and classification is done with Fuzzy ARTMAP (FA) classifier [11], using VEP signals. The seven spectral bands of VEP signals are extracted using infinite impulse response (IIR) band-pass filters with constant gain and uniform bandwidth. Spectral power in these bands is calculated using Parsevals theorem and used as features to train the FA and ML-BP classifiers. The proposed technique discriminates alcoholics from non-alcoholics wit h high accuracy. In continuation of the previous work, Ramaswamy Palaniappan et al., in their work have derived second order autoregressive (AR) coefficients [21] to discriminate alcoholics using single trial gamma band Visual Evoked Potential (VEP) signals using 3 different classifiers: Simplified Fuzzy ARTMAP (SFA) neural network (NN), Multilayer-perceptron-back propagation (MLP-BP) NN and Linear Discriminant (LD) function . Here elliptic filtering was used in the gamma band spectral range on single trial VEP signals. The average classification errors of 2.6%, 2.8% and 11.9% were obtained from LD, MLP-BP and SFA classifiers. The high accuracy of LD classification results show the effectiveness of the proposed method to discriminate between alcoholic subjects and controls. Several improvements were proposed to previous work of automated classification of alcoholics and non-alcoholics [24] by the same author. In the previous paper, MLP-NN classifying energy of gamma band VEP signals gave the best cla ssification performance using 800 VEP signals from 10 alcoholics and 10 non-alcoholics. Here, the dataset was extended to include 3560 VEP signals from 102 subjects: 62 alcoholics and 40 non-alcoholic. The classification performance was improved by i) increasing the gamma band spectral range ii) Multiple Signal Classification algorithm was used to obtain the power of the dominant frequency in gamma band VEP signals for feature extraction iii) the use of the k nearest neighbour classifier. The performance was validated by a 10-fold cross validation classification. Modification resulted in an improvement in the classification percentage from 94.49% to 98.71% in maximum averaged CVC accuracy. In this paper by Ramaswamy Palaniappan [30], a method is proposed to discriminate chronic alcoholic from non-alcoholic subjects while the subjects were sober. Energies of EEG signals in multiple gamma bands were used as features while the subjects were asked to do a picture recognition task .A neural network was used for classifying chronic alcoholic subjects from controls. Leave one out cross validation strategy revealed that alcoholics could be discriminated from non-alcoholics with accuracy of 94.55%. This study shows that the energy in gamma band spectral energy can be used as a biomarker for screening of alcoholics. The classification of chronic alcoholics from non-alcoholics using the EEG is studied in this paper by A Shahina et al., [27].Weighted Linear Prediction Cepstral Coefficients were extracted from the VEP and used as discriminating feature vectors. Auto associative neural network was used to classify these vectors into alcoholics and non alcoholics. A recognition accuracy of 52.5% is achieved. This shows that all the 64 channels do not have the same discriminatory attributes causing a reduction in the accuracy levels. Hence the authors conclude that in order to improve the classification performance, there is a need for the optimization of the number of channels to be considered for classification. In this study by Tugce Balli et al., [31], they investigated the electrophysiological differences between alcoholic and control subjects using two different approaches namely complexity and energy analysis. The EEG data used in this study were recorded from 77 alcoholic and 44 control subjects while the subjects were performing delayed matching to sample object recognition task for three types of stimuli. The experimental paradigm evokes object recognition, visual short-term memory and decision making abilities. The results indicated that all regions (i.e. frontal, central, temporal, parietal and occipital) in the brain exhibit more complexity and less energy for alcoholic subjects as compared to controls. When different visual stimuli pairs were compared among alcoholic and control subjects, the results from energy analysis showed group wise differences in occipital and parietal regions. These results provide a strong indication on the impairment in brains electrophysiological activ ity for alcoholic subjects due to a history of long term alcohol abuse. Chronic alcoholism is classically associated with major deficits in the visual and auditory processing of emotions. However, the cross modal (auditory-visual) processing of emotional stimuli, which occurs most frequently in everyday life, has not yet been explored.

Literature review construction project costs

Literature review construction project costs This chapter comprises of literature review, quotes of the various related works done in this area of studies. The duration of construction projects right from inception to completion is assuming great importance in the construction industry. The author of this project work believes that, this shift in attention on constructioin delays is taking it rightful place of importance in the global construction sector. Clients or consumers are no longer content merely with minimal cost and adequate functional performance for their projects; increasing interest rates, inflation and other commercial pressures, among other factors, mean that it is in many instances most cost-effective to complete a project within the shortest possible time.The the current hursh financial climate does not allow for subcontractors not to be prudent with project planning and delivery , hence the reason for chosing to write on this subject. The most significant unbudgeted costs on many construction projects are the financial impacts associated with delay and disruption to the works. Owners and Subcontrcators have one common objective; to complete the project in time and within budget. It is the failure of this objective of time which leads to failure of budget and ultimately gives rise to disputes. There is no consensus in the literature on the identification of factors which affect stipulated, planned or achieved construction times of buildings. One reason for this is that researchers have largely viewed the subject from diverse prospective. Such viewpoints include identification of discrete factors which affect productivity on site and taking a systems view of the construction process and end product (Nkado R.N, 1995) The inherent and often unanticipated risks on construction projects present key challenges to subcontracting firms. For example, if a project is delayed or disrupted, significant resources are engaged and management time consumed. The outcome can have serious consequences on corporate value. One loss-making project can wipe out the profit on 50 successful ones and significantly damage a companys reputation. In the current economic climate, claims and disputes are increasingly more likely. Construction delays are not a modern phenomena.The delays on some of the UKs most famous landmarks, such as St Pauls Cathederal, the Houses of Parliament and the Clifton Suspension Bridge would make the delays on more recent high profile construction projects look distinctly trifling (Lowsley et al, 2006) Delay Ñ-ц¢ generally acknowledged à Ã‚ °Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ thà Ã‚ µ mà Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢t common, costly, complex à Ã‚ °nd riц¢ky problem encountered Ñ-n construction projectц¢. Becauц¢e à Ã‚ ¾f thà Ã‚ µ overriding ц¢ignificance à Ã‚ ¾f tÑ-me fà Ã‚ ¾r both thà Ã‚ µ proprietor (Ñ-n termц¢ à Ã‚ ¾f performance) à Ã‚ °nd thà Ã‚ µ ц¢upplier (Ñ-n termц¢ à Ã‚ ¾f money), it Ñ-ц¢ thà Ã‚ µ ц¢ource à Ã‚ ¾f frequent diц¢puteц¢ à Ã‚ °nd claimц¢ leading tà Ã‚ ¾ lawц¢uitц¢. Delayц¢ occur Ñ-n almost every construction project à Ã‚ °nd thà Ã‚ µ magnitude à Ã‚ ¾f theц¢e delayц¢ varieц¢ conц¢iderably frà Ã‚ ¾m project tà Ã‚ ¾ project. à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ome projectц¢ à Ã‚ °re only à Ã‚ ° few dayц¢ behind ц¢chedule; ц¢ome à Ã‚ °re delayed bу over à Ã‚ ° year. à Ã¢â‚¬ ¦o it Ñ-ц¢ eц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ential tà Ã‚ ¾ define thà Ã‚ µ actual cauц¢eц¢ à Ã‚ ¾f delay Ñ-n order tà Ã‚ ¾ minimize à Ã‚ °nd avoid delay Ñ-n any construction project (Ahmed et al., 2003). Chan et al (2004) Concluded in a research conducted to measure the success of construction projects that, cost, time and quality are the three basic and most important performance indicators in consruction projects.Other measures such as safety, functionality and satisfaction etc. are also currently attracting increasing attention. Chan et al, (2004) accentuated that accurate construction planning is a key factor in ensuring the delivery of a project on schedule and within budget. As almost all projects comprise a large number of interdependent items of work and involve many participants, reliable plans and accurate progress-recording mechanisms become essential to project success. Mbachu, et al(2005) discover the sources of strategies for minimising risks in the construction projects and categorised the results into internal and external sources.The internal sources of risks, which fall under the control of clients ,consultants and Subcontractors , include those risk elements emanationg from their acts or omissions in the project development process. They noted that, the most frequently mentioned risk elements under client sources include frequent and late changes at critical stages of the design and construction process, poor leadership and inadequate supervisions on the part of Contractors and subcontractors, low productivity, re-work and lossess, delays in supplying equipment, materials and components. For the consultants, incomplete design information and delay in supplying information required by contractors on site.The external risk sources, which are not within the control of the client and the project team, could be segregated into economic and globalisation dynamics, unforeseen circumstances/force majeue, government, statutory, political controls, health and safety risk elements and socio-cultural issue.smia12010-07-21T16:29:00 Who says this is so? If it5s you then you nned to say what leads you to this concluswionyou Typeц¢ of delay A delay to a construction project generally means delay to the planned completion date or a delay to a particular activity or sequence of activities (Lowsley et al, 2006) Delays can be grouped in the following four broad categories according to how they operate contractually: non-excusable delays; excusable non-compensable delays; excusable compensable delays; and concurrent delayц¢ The Bureau of Engineering Project Delivery Manual version 2 released in October 2006 smia12010-07-21T16:30:00 You need to give a proper reference for this. Who are the Bureau of Engineering Project Delivery?categorised construction delays in three basic types of delays, namely; Excusable-Non-Compensatory (Concurrent), Non-Excusable and Excusable-Compensatory. Non Excusable Delay Non-Excusable delays are events that are within the Subcontractors control or that are foreseeable. These delays might be the results of late performance of Subcontractors, untimely performance by suppliers, faulty workmanship by the subcontractor, underestimate of productivity, inadequate scheduling or mamanagement, equipment breakdowns, staffing problems, a project specific labour strikes caused by either the Subcontractors with the labour representative or by unfair labour practices(Trauner et al,2009) Excusable Non Compensable Delay An excusable delay is caused by factors that are not foreseeable, beyond the Subcontractors control .The implication of the term means that, neither party is at fault under the terms and conditions of the contract and has agreed to share the risk and consequences when excusable events occur. The Subcontractor will not receive compensation for the cost of delay, but he will be entitled for an additional time to smia12010-07-21T16:31:00 Always? Dosent this depend on the terms of his sub-contract? complete his work and is also relieved from any contractually imposed liquidated damages for the period of delay (Ahmed et al, 2003) 2.5 Excusable Compensable Delay (Ahmed et al, 2003) acknowledged that, compensable delays are those that are generally caused by the owner or its agents. If the delay is compensable, then the contractor is entitled not only to an extension of time but also to an adjustment for any increase in costs caused by the delay. Owner-issued contracts specifically address some potential compensable delays and provide equitable adjustments. The usual equitable adjustable clauses in owner issued contracts that apply are: Changes, Dithering Site Conditionsmia12010-07-21T16:32:00 What does this mean?, and Suspension 2.6 Concurrent delays The concept of concurrent delay has become a very common presentation as part of some analysis of construction delays. The concurrency argument is not just from the standpoint of determining the projects critical delays but from the standpoint of assigning responsibility for damages associated with delays to the critical path. Owners will often cite concurrent delays by the contractor as a reason for issuing a time extension without additional compensation.Contractors will often cite concurrent delays by the owners as a reason why liquilidated damages should not be assessed for its delays. Concurrent delays are separate delays to the critical path that occur at the same time. (Lowsley et al, 2006) Rubin et al. (1983) defined concurrent delays as the situation in which two or more delays occur at the same time either of which had it occurred alone, would have affected the ultimate completion date. It means each of the delays must independently affect the critical path. Reynolds et al (2001) argue that to be considered concurrent delays, the delays need not commence precisely at the same time. Arditi et al (1995) had a view that, the delays need not occur in the same activity on the same critical path but may exist in different activities on parallel critical path as well. The SCL Protocol (SCL, 2002) describe a true concurrent delay as the occurrences of the delays, one an employer risk event and the other a contractor risk event, at the same time, and their effects felt at the same time. This occurrence is, however, extremely rare in practice since time is infinitely divisible. For instance, two delay events occurring on the same day would not necessarily be true concurrent delays because one may have occurred in the morning while the other in the afternoon. Concurrent delay is also rather misleadingly used to refer to the occurrence of two or more delay events at different times but their effect are felt (in whole or in part) at the same time. As a summary, Figure 1 classifies the different types of delays based on their various attributes. Figure 1: Delay Classifications (Nuhu Braimah 2008) 2.7 Primary Causes of Delay There are two kinds of reason for delay in construction project: external causes; and internal cauц¢eц¢.Internal causes of delay include the causes arising from four partià Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ involved in the project. These partià Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ include the proprietor, designers, contractorц¢, and conц¢ultantц¢. Other delays, which do not arise from these four partià Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢, are based on external factors for example from the government, material suppliers, or the weather (Ahmed et al., 2003). Semple et al. (1994) found that making provisions in a construction programme for events such as weather delays reduces disputes. Cost and time claims, especially those which are difficult to quantify, regularly result in disputes between the contractual parties. Weather contingencies are very seldom adequate, in terms of progress and cost, due to the use of varied methods used in the industry for weather contingency calculations. This results in adverse client-contractor relationships. Caenell.N.J, C2005) Cited the appropriateness to look at the matters which actually cause delay during the works themselves. The Contractor/Subcontractors responsibly for delays arise due to a failure on the part of the contractor to carry out the planning stages of the works properly, others will be due to an inability to perform in the manner agreed in the contract.This is in line with the authors believes that, most delays are caused by inefficiencies on the part of the Subcontractors. Employers responsibility or neutral events are caused through an act or omission of the employer or his team or by a matter which does not arise through the fault of the contractor. These are governed by the contract conditions. A useful list according to Carnell N.J (2005) is listed in Clause 25.4 of JCT 98 and includes: Force majeure,Exceptionally adverse weather conditions,Clause 22 perils(flood and the like),Civil commotion, strike or lock out,Compliance with architects instructions,Non-receipt of essential information,Delays by nominated suppliers or sub-contractors, artisans and tradesmen,Government action,Restrictions on the availability of labour or materials,Delays by,statutory undertakers,Delays in giving access to the works Ahmed et al, (2003) also mentioned the following as some possible causes of delays in construction project in nowadays: Possessive decision-making mechanism, highly bureaucratic organization, insufficient data collection and survey before design Site topography is changed after design,Lack of coordination at design phase,Inadequate review,Improper inspection approach,Different attitude between the consultant and contractors/subcontractors,Financial difficulties,Inexperience personnel,Insufficient number of staffs,Deficiency in project coordination,time spent to find sub contractors,company who is appropriate for each task,Often changing Sub -contracting company,Inadequate and old equipment,Lack of high-technology equipment and Harvest time. Ahmed et al (2003) cited Ogunlana et all (2001) as having studied the delays in Thailand, as an example of developing economies.They concluded that the problems of the construction industry in developing economies could be nested in three layers:(1) Problem of shortages or inadequacies on industry infrastructure, mainly supply of resources, (2) Problems caused by clients and consultants and (3) Problems caused by incompetence of Contractors. Assaf et al (1995) Listed 56 extensive causes of disputes over delay and identified them as : shortage of construction material, changes in types and specifications during construction, slow delivery of material, damage of material in storage, delay in the special manufacture of the building material, shortage of labour, labour skills, nationality of labourers, equipment failure, equipment shortage, unskilled operators, slow delivery of equipment, equipment productivity, financing by Contractor during construction, delays in Contractors progress payment by Owner, cash problems during construction, design changes by Owner or his agent during construction, design errors made by designers, foundation conditions smia12010-07-21T16:35:00 These would be far better rpesented as a bullet pointed listencountered in the field, mistake in soil investigation, water table conditions on site, geological problems on site, obtaining permits from municipality, obtaining permits for labourers, excessive bureaucracy in project Owner operation, building code used in the design of the project, preparation and approval of shop drawings, waiting for sample material approval, preparation of scheduling networks and revisions, lack of training personnel and management support, lack of database in estimating activity duration and resources, judgement of experience in estimating time and resources, project delivery systems used, hot weather effect on construction activities, insufficient available utilities on site, the relationship between different subcontractors schedule, the conflict between the consultant and the Contractor, uncooperative Owners, slowness of the Owner decision making process, the joint ownership of the project, poor o rganization, insufficient communication between Owner and designer at the design phase, unavailability of professional construction management, inadequate early planning of the project, inspection and testing procedures used in the projects, errors committed during field, application of quality control based on foreign specification, controlling subcontractors by general Contractors in the execution of the works, the unavailability of financial incentives for Contractor to finish ahead of schedule, negotiations and obtaining of contracts, legal disputes between various parties, social and cultural factors, accidents during construction . Ahmed et al. (2003) maintained that the iц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ue of responsibility for delay Ñ-ц¢ related to whether the supplier Ñ-ц¢ awarded or Ñ-ц¢ liable for costs and additional time to complete the project. The categories of reц¢ponц¢ibilitieц¢ are: proprietor (or agent) responsible supplier will be granted à Ã‚ ° time extension and additional costs (indirect), where warranted; supplier (or subcontractor) responsible supplier will not be granted time or costs and may have to pay damages/penalties; neither party (e.g. act of God) responsible supplier will receive additional time to complete the project but no costs will be granted and no damages/penalties aц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢eц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ed; and both partià Ã‚ µÃƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ responsible supplier will receive additional time to complete the project but no costs will be granted and any damages/penalties aц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢eц¢Ãƒâ€˜Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ed. smia12010-07-21T16:36:00 Always? Dosent this depend on the risk allocation in the contract? Ying et al (2005) acknowledged five factors that influence time performance as; Long project scope identification, low speed of decision making, inadequate managerial skills during the planning phase, insuffiecient contractor completion and Lack of a strong organasational culture. Okumbe et al (2008) researched on Construction Industry perpestive on causes and effects of delays in South Africa and highlighted causes of dealy in payment as consultants inefficiency,lack of professionalism by the government employees,incompetence caused by insufficient staff,bureaucratic procedures experienced by government/client,late processing by project quantity surveyors ,late prepartion of payment certificate,claiming problems,late approval of work by architect and engineers,continous formulation of new policies by The Public Procurement and Asset Disposal Board (PPADB),poor budgeting by the client,late submission of cost reports by projects quantity surveyors,lack of understanding of contractual obligations and lack of funding,late project delivery,delays, in materials supply,labour stoppage as employess may go on strike if not paid on time,cash flow problems faced by contractors,contractors claiming extension of time with costs,risk of poor workmanship,poor contract deli very and default in paying suppliesrs and employers. In addition to causes of delays and who is responsible for them, there are other delay-related effects that may occur. High on the list is a decrease in the Contractors efficiency caused by the delays. The delays may directly cause the inefficiency or be caused by the inefficiency. Gorse (2004) Suggested that a well-evidenced claim, supported by an appropraite documentation, that properly establishes cause and effect and reasonably quantities the losses for each event will probably succeeds. Frimpong et al (2003)Conducted a survey on the causes of delay and cost overruns in construction of groundwater projects in a developing countries;Ghana as a case study and the main conclusions of the survey were;monthly payments difficulties from agencies,matarial procurement,poor technical performance,escalation of matarial prices accordinging to their degree of influence and theses were considered as major factors.The other factors that emerged as not very important ,but of interest were,bad weather,unfavorable geological conditions. Ahmed et al (2003) carried out a research which revealed the ranking of design related key delays.The most general design related caused delay was found to be taking place during the inspection phase followed by material/fabrication period, poor subcontract performance, material procurement and construction mistake as shown on figure 2. Source: Ahmed et al. ;( 2003) Figure 2: Ranking of design related key delays Effects of Delay on Construction Cost A brief review of text books and reports smia12010-07-21T16:38:00 What books and reports? You should at least give some example referencesreveal that construction excellence has not only become an option but a necessity, if the UK construction industry is to survive economics dynamics and changing social needs. Considering the industry is one of the pillars of the domestic economy making approximately 10 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and employing considerable number of workers, it is important to note that construction excellence is critical for the UK economy and its future. When a project is delayed, the owner, Contractor, or both may incur added costs. The determination of the amount of these costs is based on the results from the delay analysis and the determination of liability once the critical delays have been identified. (Trauner et al, 2009) More importantly, the construction industry needs to improve itself in order to increase profitability, quality of deliverables and client needs before it can contribute to the economy. There are many possible factors that can cause actual labour costs to exceed estimated costs such as engineering errors and omissions, excessive changes, delay and acceleration and weather. These factors may require contractors to work out of sequence, hire more manpower than planned, work scheduled overtime and utilize more costly methods of construction. (Borcherding et al, 2006). Trauner et al (2009) listed the following as examples of how delays can lead to inefficiencies. Shifts in construction sections-A delay to a project can shift work originally scheduled for one season into a different season. Availability of resources-Delays can affect the availability or resources in the areas of manpower, subcontracts or equipment. Manpower levels and distribution-Changes may be needed in terms of additions manpower, erratic staffing or variations in preferred/optimum gang size. Lowe et al (2006) described disputes as being the source of possible time and cost overrun and possible adversarial relationships between the different parties. This is not welcome to either the Owner or the Contractor. Cost overrun might lead to the project being unsuccessful, unfeasible or invalidate any benefits. Although avoiding disputes has been suggested, this is not usually possible and where disputes cannot be avoided efforts should be made to manage and contain the consequences. It is to the benefit of both the Employer and the Subcontractor to manage disputes towards a resolution as this will safeguard the success of the project. Cormican (1985) observed that the construction industry in UK is always at the top of the bankruptcy league and the most dangerous of all sectors. These unhealthy developments underpin the prevailing abandonment of projects and undermine the viability and sustainability of the construction industry. Akinci et al (1998) categorised risk factors affecting cost performance into organisation specific, global and acts of God. The organisation specific risks are internal risks related to the organisations resources and management including labour skills and availability, material delivery and quality, equipment reliability and availability, and managerial efficiency. Global risks are those that transcend the boundaries of the contracting organisation yet having large impact on it. These include estimating related, design related, level of competition, fraudulent practices, construction related, economic related and political relatedsmia12010-07-21T16:40:00 This is OK as far as it goes, but the literature revierw is supposed to be a CRITICAL review yours is really just a list of someone said thisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. You really need to summariuse at the end what the key issues are from your literature review, and how they relate to your particular problem..

Nursing Mentorship Program Essay -- Nursing Practice, Nursing Profess

As Finkelman (2006) stated, â€Å"Mentoring, and important career development to that can be used by nurses any type of set or specialty, can be used to develop the critical leadership skills needed by nurses. All successful leaders have had mentors are our mentors† (Finkelman,2006, p. 390). Currently my facility has a six to months mentoring program for new graduates. This program is in addition to the current preceptor program that orients the new graduates to the unit they will be assigned. Most of these new nurses are graduates from local nursing schools and have done most of their clinical nursing education at this facility. The hospital realizes that going from a classroom and clinical setting to on hands bedside patient care can be a rude awakening. The registered nurses, selected to be mentors are the more experience, knowledgeable and will support and nurture the new grad. These Mentors are the individuals that tell the new nurse what she needs to know and will show her ways to accomplish her goals successfully and expose them to opportunities to learn new things. The nur...

Dramatica Theory and James Washington Square :: James Washington Square

Dramatica Theory and James' Washington Square In this essay I will review a critique of James' Washington Square. I found the critique to be dry and rather clinical in its approach to this fine work by Henry James. From the beginning the article presents a cold psychological approach to the characters that James' has made live for me in the short novel. The article covers the character's name, gender, a short description of him or her, the role that character plays in the piece and then goes on to list the basic characteristics of him or her. Motivation, methodology, evaluation and purpose are the four characteristics that are used to describe a character. The analysis does refer to the original work in many places. I found this to be helpful. For example when it describes Catherine Sloper it takes a quote from the novel to list her as, "a dull, plain girl she was called by rigorous critics" (James 11). This did help redeem the article somewhat. But the basic problem I found with the analysis kept leaping up. It's too scientific an approach for any literary work. The main problem with "Dramatica," for me, seems to be in that the theory looks at a story in relation to, "the mind's problem solving process" ("What is Dramatica?"). This area of the website goes on to explain that an author must examine all possible solutions to an issue in the story. In an effort to prove that the author's solutions are the best. The Dramatica theory of critique states that if, "you have covered every angle in your argument, you've mapped all the ways an audience might look at the problem and, therefore, all the ways anyone might look at that problem" ("What is Dramatica?"). This mapping turns any piece into a psychological pseudo study and relieves it of any beauty that it may contain.